Knowledge and practices related to antibiotics among poultry producers and veterinarians in two Indian states.

Background: Antibiotics are frequently utilized in livestock, particularly poultry, for therapy and growth promotion, resulting in antimicrobial resistance. Multidrug-resistant bacteria are frequent in poultry samples from India. The purpose of this study was to better understand main antibiotic consumption patterns in poultry value chains, as well as antibiotic knowledge and practices among the stakeholders. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted in Assam and Karnataka, India. The poultry farmers were interviewed on antibiotic usage, antibiotic knowledge, feeding practices, and preventive measures on the farm. Poultry farmers reported their veterinarians, and we also interviewed them on knowledge and practices related to antimicrobial use in poultry and antimicrobial resistance. Item response theory (IRT) was used to assess the association between the answers and demographic factors. Results: This survey interviewed 62 poultry farmers and 11 veterinarians. Small poultry farms with fewer than 4000 birds were owned by 51.6% of farmers. Most poultry farmers had heard about antibiotics, and 62.9% thought they cured all diseases. If one chicken is sick, 72.6% said others should be given antibiotics to prevent the disease. All veterinarians utilized tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, and cephalexin on the poultry farms. Over half (54.5%) stated antibiotics prevent diseases, and 72.7% said they treat and prevent diseases. Some (45.5%) said antibiotics boost growth. IRT analysis showed that 8 questions assessed a knowledge scale well. Univariable analysis showed that Assam farmers and women were likely to have have more knowledge. Conclusion: The poultry farmers were mostly unaware of the relation between antibiotic use and antimicrobial resistance. Despite being aware, the veterinarians agreed with use antibiotics as a prophylactic measure. It is vital that these stakeholders understand the repercussions of such widespread antibiotic use. In order to increase knowledge, frequent trainings and antimicrobial stewardship programmes with effective communication and incentives for behaviour change should be conducted.

Analyses of Extended-Spectrum-ß-Lactamase, Metallo-ß-Lactamase, and AmpC-ß-Lactamase Producing Enterobacteriaceae from the Dairy Value Chain in India.

The consumption of milk contaminated with antibiotic-resistant bacteria poses a significant health threat to humans. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of Enterobacteriaceae producing ß-lactamases (ESBL, MBL, and AmpC) in cow and buffalo milk samples from two Indian states, Haryana and Assam. A total of 401 milk samples were collected from dairy farmers and vendors in the specified districts. Microbiological assays, antibiotic susceptibility testing, and PCR-based genotyping were employed to analyze 421 Gram-negative bacterial isolates. The overall prevalence of ß-lactamase genes was 10% (confidence interval (CI) (7-13)), with higher rates in Haryana (13%, CI (9-19)) compared to Assam (7%, CI (4-11)). The identified ß-lactamase genes in isolates were blaCMY, blaMOX, blaFOX, blaEBC, and blaDHA, associated with AmpC production. Additionally, blaCTX-M1, blaSHV, and blaTEM were detected as ESBL producers, while blaVIM, blaIMP, blaSPM, blaSIM, and blaGIM were identified as MBL producers. Notably, Shigella spp. were the dominant ß-lactamase producers among identified Enterobacteriaceae. This study highlights the presence of various prevalent ß-lactamase genes in milk isolates, indicating the potential risk of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in dairy products. The presence of ß-lactam resistance raises concern as this could restrict antibiotic options for treatment. The discordance between genotypic and phenotypic methods emphasizes the necessity for comprehensive approaches that integrate both techniques to accurately assess antibiotic resistance. Urgent collaborative action incorporating rational and regulated use of antibiotics across the dairy value chain is required to address the global challenge of ß-lactam resistance.

Comparing the Effectiveness of Different Approaches to Raise Awareness About Antimicrobial Resistance in Farmers and Veterinarians of India.

Background: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global public health threat. The indiscriminate use of antibiotics in the animal health sector contributes to increasing rates of AMR and studies involving dairy farmers in India have found knowledge levels regarding antibiotics and AMR to be very low. The purpose of this study was to assess different methods to raise awareness and knowledge about AMR and antibiotic use among dairy farmers, paravets (veterinary assistants), and veterinarians. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted in September-December of 2018 in some parts of Haryana, Assam, Karnataka, and West Bengal. It had two parts: an intervention meeting (September-October 2018) which consisted of focus group discussions (FGD) with farmers, key informant interviews (KII) with veterinary professionals along with distribution of information packages, and then a follow-up survey (November-December 2018). The villages were randomly allocated to either one of the four intervention approaches (1-FGD/KII and information package on AMR; 2-FGD/KI and information on animal health; 3- FGD/KII and information package on animal health plus information on AMR; or 4- only the FGD/KII). A follow-up survey was done to assess the effect of interventions. Results: In total, 274 dairy farmers and 51 veterinary professionals (21 veterinarians and 30 paravets) participated in the follow-up survey. Many of the farmers and veterinary professionals who participated in the follow-up survey had been part of the intervention meetings. The average knowledge score of farmers was 7.8. It was found that the knowledge score was higher amongst farmers who had participated in the intervention meetings (p < 0.05), had received intervention approach 2 (p = 0.03) or approach 3 (p = 0.01), and amongst female farmers (p = 0.03) compared to male. The veterinary professionals had good knowledge but lacked interest in training the farmers about antimicrobial resistance. Conclusion: Our research demonstrated that a higher percentage of farmers and veterinary professionals who attended the intervention meeting had improved knowledge. Dairy farmers should be regularly educated on antibiotic usage and how to avoid misusing them. Also, veterinary experts should be provided with tools and strategies to educate farmers on the use of antimicrobials.

Estimates of the Economic Cost Caused by Five Major Reproductive Problems in Dairy Animals in Assam and Bihar, India.

Reproductive problems in dairy animals reduce fertility, prevent conception, create problems in the delivery of healthy calves, lead to postpartum complications, increase inter-calving periods, reduce milk yield, and lower overall lifetime productivity. This study aimed at understanding the incidence of reproductive problems and the cost caused by these. The study covered 954 dairy animals in Bihar and 1348 dairy animals in Assam that were selected using a multi-stage random sampling method. The costs were calculated as the sum of income losses and expenditures incurred. The major cost incurred resulted from extended calving intervals (46.1% of the total cost), followed by loss through salvage selling (38.1%), expenditure for treatment of repeat breeders (5.9%), loss of milk production (5.3%) and expenditure for extra inseminations (2.0%). About one fifth of the selected reproductive problems were left untreated. The estimated cost of reproductive problems was Indian Rupees (INR) 2424.9 (USD 36.1) per dairy animal per year (of the total dairy animal population) which represented approximately 4.1% of the mean value loss of dairy animals (INR 58,966/USD 877) per year. Reproductive problems were significantly (p < 0.001) higher among improved (exotic breed or cross-bred) dairy animals than indigenous (native breed or nondescript indigenous) dairy animals. The study suggests that with the increase of improved dairy animal population, the loss may further increase. The study concludes that any economic estimation of reproduction problems based on aetiology without confirmatory diagnoses could be highly misleading because of the complex nature of the problems.

Understanding Antibiotic Usage on Small-Scale Dairy Farms in the Indian States of Assam and Haryana Using a Mixed-Methods Approach-Outcomes and Challenges.

The use and misuse of antibiotics in both humans and animals contributes to the global emergence of antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria, a threat to public health and infection control. Currently, India is the world's leading milk producer but antibiotic usage within the dairy sector is poorly regulated. Little data exists reflecting how antibiotics are used on dairy farms, especially on small-scale dairy farms in India. To address this lack of data, a study was carried out on 491 small-scale dairy farms in two Indian states, Assam and Haryana, using a mixed method approach where farmers were interviewed, farms inspected for the presence of antibiotics and milk samples taken to determine antibiotic usage. Usage of antibiotics on farms appeared low only 10% (95% CI 8-13%) of farmers surveyed confirmed using antibiotics in their dairy herds during the last 12 months. Of the farms surveyed, only 8% (6-11%) had milk samples positive for antibiotic residues, namely from the novobiocin, macrolides, and sulphonamide classes of antibiotics. Of the farmers surveyed, only 2% (0.8-3%) had heard of the term "withdrawal period" and 53% (40-65%) failed to describe the term "antibiotic". While this study clearly highlights a lack of understanding of antibiotics among small-scale dairy farmers, a potential factor in the emergence of AMR bacteria, it also shows that antibiotic usage on these farms is low and that the possible role these farmers play in AMR emergence may be overestimated.

Seroprevalence and Risk Factors of Brucella Infection in Dairy Animals in Urban and Rural Areas of Bihar and Assam, India.

This study assessed seropositivity of Brucella infection in dairy animals and risk factors associated with it. The cross-sectional study used multi-stage, random sampling in the states of Bihar and Assam in India. In total, 740 dairy animals belonging to 534 households of 52 villages were covered under this study. Serological testing was conducted by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA). Animal-level Brucella seropositivity was found to be 15.9% in Assam and 0.3% in Bihar. Seropositivity in urban areas (18.7%) of Assam was found to be higher than in rural areas (12.4%). Bihar was excluded from the risk factor analysis, as only one Brucella seropositive sample was detected in the state. A total of 30 variables were studied for assessing risk factors, of which 15 were selected for multivariable regression analyses following a systematic process. Finally, only three risk factors were identified as statistically significant. It was found that animals belonging to districts having smaller-sized herds were less likely (p < 0.001) to be Brucella seropositive than animals belonging to districts having larger-sized herds. Furthermore, the chance of being Brucella seropositive increased (p = 0.007) with the increase in age of dairy animals, but decreased (p = 0.072) with the adoption of artificial insemination (AI) for breeding. We speculated that the identified risk factors in Assam likely explained the reason behind lower Brucella seropositivity in Bihar, and therefore any future brucellosis control program should focus on addressing these risk factors.

Knowledge and practices of dairy farmers relating to brucellosis in urban, peri-urban and rural areas of Assam and Bihar, India.

BACKGROUND: Brucellosis is one of the most common zoonotic diseases in the world. This study aimed at assessing farmers' knowledge about brucellosis as well as practices relevant to transmission of brucellosis and their associated determinants. RESULTS: Few farmers knew about brucellosis (3.4%, n = 18) and its zoonotic importance (0.8%, n = 4). Knowledge about brucellosis was higher for farmers with a larger herd size (p < 0.001) and fully using a stall-fed system (p < 0.001). Training on dairy cattle management (p < 0.001), training on animal disease (p < 0.01), consultation with veterinarians (p < 0.001) and farms being in urban areas (p < 0.01) were also significantly positively associated with knowledge about brucellosis. No significant association was observed between farmers' knowledge about brucellosis and state, family size, education, age or gender of the farmers. Farmers knowledge about brucellosis was significantly associated with certain practices that include use of disinfectant while cleaning farms (p < 0.05), animal movement (p < 0.01), introduction of new animals (p < 0.05) and raw milk consumption (p < 0.05). The study did not find any association between knowledge about brucellosis and method of disposal of aborted materials, personal hygiene and quarantine practices. CONCLUSION: More interaction with veterinarians and training on animal management may be an important tool for generating awareness among the farming community for reducing transmission of the disease.

Risk factors for Brucella spp. and Coxiella burnetii infection among small ruminants in Eastern India.

Small ruminants are the main reservoirs for brucellosis and coxiellosis, two zoonotic diseases affecting livestock production, and posing a public health threat in India. Understanding disease prevalence and risk factors associated with small ruminant infection can help mitigate disease transmission. We report a cross-sectional survey in the states of Assam and Odisha in Eastern India. We interviewed 244 farmers to assess knowledge, attitude and practices relevant to brucellosis and coxiellosis infection. Serum samples from 411 goats and 21 sheep were analysed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Rose-Bengal Brucella agglutination plate test. Higher Brucella and Coxiella burnetii seroprevalence were found in Odisha (22% and 11.5%, respectively) than Assam (9.8% and 1.6%, respectively), and certain districts in Odisha were at higher risk. No association was found between seropositive animals and clinical signs, a challenge when attempting to identify seropositive animals in the herd. None of the farmers interviewed were aware of brucellosis, its aetiology, clinical form, or zoonotic risk. This study acts as a first indication of the extent of these diseases among small ruminants in these Indian states, highlighting how farming practices are associated with increased risk of infection. More research is urgently needed to mitigate zoonoses transmission in this region.

A qualitative study on antibiotic use and animal health management in smallholder dairy farms of four regions of India.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major global public health issue. In India, access to medicines is poorly regulated and therefore antibiotics in dairy cattle are commonly used by farmers without consulting with veterinarians. This study was conducted to understand practices and knowledge related to antibiotic use and AMR among dairy farmers and veterinary professionals in selected urban and peri-urban areas of India. METHODS: A total of 28 focus group discussions with farmers and 53 interviews with veterinary professionals were carried out. RESULTS: Mastitiswas identified as the main animal health challenge. Antibiotic consultation behavior of farmers depended on the availability of veterinarians. Except in Bangalore, farmers were found to often treat animals on their own. They were found unaware of the concept of AMR, but knew the importance of vaccination. Veterinarians included in the study had a good understanding of antibiotics, AMR, and zoonotic diseases. CONCLUSION: The knowledge level and practices observed in the study related to the use/abuse of antibiotics can potentially increase the risk of development of AMR and its transfer in the community. Our findings can help support AMR - mitigation efforts in the country, including the design of better policies on antibiotic use in dairy.

Seroprevalence of hemorrhagic septicemia in dairy cows in Assam, India.

Hemorrhagic septicemia (HS) is a highly fatal disease caused by Pasteurella multocida that often cause outbreaks in buffalo and cattle in India, and thus is a major cause of production losses. It is one of the livestock diseases with the highest mortality, and despite available vaccines, outbreaks still occur. To assess the seroprevalence in the state of Assam, Northeast India, 346 serum samples from cows from 224 randomly selected households, from both urban and rural areas of three districts, were tested with a commercial ELISA. In total 88 cows were seropositive (25.4%), and indigenous cattle were significantly more seropositive (33.5%) compared to the crossbred cattle (18.5%) (p = 0.002). Herd prevalence was 35.7%, and more rural farms (47.4%) were positive compared to the urban farms (23.6%) (p < 0.001). No other risk factors were identified in this study. Only one farm had vaccinated against HS, but there were no seropositive animals detected in that herd. This study shows that HS is highly prevalent in Assam. Considering the importance of dairy production in India, and the dependence of the rural Assam population on farming and livestock keeping, more extensive vaccination campaigns would be important.

Coxiella seroprevalence and risk factors in large ruminants in Bihar and Assam, India.

Coxiellosis is a zoonotic disease caused by the ubiquitous bacteria Coxiella burnetii, which can be spread either through ticks or through body fluids. In humans the infection is characterized by a febrile disease; ruminants may abort and reduce their milk yield, causing serious production losses for the farmer. In India, the disease has been known to be present since the 1970s, but little is known about the epidemiology in most states. In this cross-sectional survey in the two states of Assam and Bihar, 520 households were interviewed for risk factors, and serum samples from 744 dairy animals were analyzed using ELISA as well as PCR. Out of the farms, 17.4% had at least one seropositive animal, with significantly higher seroprevalence in Bihar (27.1%) than Assam (5.8%); and significantly more sero-positive farms in urban areas (23.1%) than rural (12.2%). On an individual animal level, 14.1% were seropositive, with higher prevalence among buffaloes than cows (28.0% versus 13.6%). Out of the seropositive animals, 10.6% had aborted during the last three years, and 37.5% had experienced problems with repeat breeding: both higher than in non-seropositive animals. In conclusion, this study indicates that coxiellosis is potentially an important cause of reproductive failures and production losses in dairy animals. The high prevalence, especially in urban areas, is a public health risk. Further research is needed to elucidate the epidemiology and identify mitigation options that could work in the different settings of different Indian states.

Food-safety hazards in the pork chain in Nagaland, North East India: implications for human health.

Pork occupies an important place in the diet of the population of Nagaland, one of the North East Indian states. We carried out a pilot study along the pork meat production chain, from live animal to end consumer. The goal was to obtain information about the presence of selected food borne hazards in pork in order to assess the risk deriving from these hazards to the health of the local consumers and make recommendations for improving food safety. A secondary objective was to evaluate the utility of risk-based approaches to food safety in an informal food system. We investigated samples from pigs and pork sourced at slaughter in urban and rural environments, and at retail, to assess a selection of food-borne hazards. In addition, consumer exposure was characterized using information about hygiene and practices related to handling and preparing pork. A qualitative hazard characterization, exposure assessment and hazard characterization for three representative hazards or hazard proxies, namely Enterobacteriaceae, T. solium cysticercosis and antibiotic residues, is presented. Several important potential food-borne pathogens are reported for the first time including Listeria spp. and Brucella suis. This descriptive pilot study is the first risk-based assessment of food safety in Nagaland. We also characterise possible interventions to be addressed by policy makers, and supply data to inform future risk assessments.